Patañjali is the compiler of the Yoga Sutras, an important collection of aphorisms on Yoga practice. From the tenth century CE onwards, the legend grew that the same Patañjali was also the author of the Mahābhāṣya, a commentary on Kātyāyana’s vārttikas (short comments) on Pāṇini’s Aṣṭādhyāyī as well as on an unspecified work of medicine (āyurveda). Patanjali was from the Gonda District of Uttar Pradesh. He is thought to have lived in the second century BC.
Yoga Sūtras
The Yoga tradition is much older than the text itself as there are references in the Mahābhārata, and the Gitā identifies three kinds of yoga, and it is also the subject of the late upanishad, Yogatattva. The Yoga Sūtras codifies the royal or best (rāja) yoga practices, presenting these as a eight-limbed system (ashtānga) (see below). The philosophic tradition is related to the Sāmkhya school. The focus is on the mind; the second sutra defines Yoga – it is the cessation of all mental fluctuations, all wandering thoughts cease and the mind is focused on a single thought (ekāgratā).
In contrast to the focus on the mind in the Yoga sutras, later traditions of Yoga such as the Hatha yoga focus on more complex asanas or body postures. “Alternatively, the phrase janim asatah can be taken to allude to the Yoga philosophy of Patanjali Rsi, inasmuch as his Yoga-sutras teach one how to achieve the transcendental status of Brahmanhood by a mechanical process of exercise and meditation. Patanjali’s yoga method is here called asat because it ignores the essential aspect of devotion—surrender to the will of the Supreme Person. As Lord Krsna states in Bhagavad-gita (17.28), asraddhaya hutam dattam tapas taptam krtam ca yat asad ity ucyate partha na ca tat pretya no iha “Anything done as sacrifice, charity or penance without faith in the Supreme, O son of Prtha, is impermanent. It is called asat and is useless both in this life and in the next.””
Relevance of Patanjali’s contribution to the science of yoga
Patañjali defended in his yoga-treatise several ideas that are not mainstream of either Sankhya or Yoga. He, according to the Iyengar adept, biographer and scholar Kofi Busia, acknowledges the ego not as a separate entity. The subtle body linga sarira he would not regard as permanent and he would deny it a direct control over external matters. This is not in accord with classical Sankhya and Yoga. Although much of the aphorisms in the Yoga Sutra possibly pre-dates Patanjali, it is clear that much is original and it is more than a mere compilation. The clarity and unity he brought to divergent views prevalent till then has inspired a long line of teachers and practitioners up to the present day.
Philosophical roots and influences
The Sutras are built on a foundation of Samkhya philosophy and also exhibit the influence of Upanishadic, Buddhist and Jain thought. Karel Werner writes that “Patanjali’s system is unthinkable without Buddhism. As far as its terminology goes there is much in the Yoga Sutras that reminds us of Buddhist formulations from the Pāli Canon and even more so from the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma and from Sautrāntika.” Robert Thurman writes that Patanjali was influenced by the success of the Buddhist monastic system to formulate his own matrix for the version of thought he considered orthodox.
The five yamas or the constraints of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali bear an uncanny resemblance to the five major vows of Jainism, indicating influence of Jainism. This mutual influence between the Yoga philosophy and Jainism is admitted by the author Vivian Worthington who writes: “Yoga fully acknowledges its debt to Jainism, and Jainism reciprocates by making the practice of yoga part and parcel of life.”
Christopher Chappel also notes that three teachings closely associated with Jainism appear in Yoga: the doctrine of karma described as colourful in both traditions (see concept of lesya); the telos of isolation (kevala in Jainism and Kaivalyam in Yoga); and the practice of non-violence (ahimsa). He also notes that the entire list of five yamas (II:30) is identical with the ethical precepts (Mahavratas) taught by Mahavira who predated Patanjali by a few centuries. In the Yoga Sutras, Patanjali prescribes adherence to eight “limbs” or steps (the sum of which constitute “Ashtanga Yoga”, the title of the second chapter) to quiet one’s mind and achieve kaivalya. The Yoga Sutras form the theoretical and philosophical basis of Raja Yoga, and are considered to be the most organized and complete definition of that discipline.
The division into the Eight Limbs (Sanskrit Ashtanga) of Yoga is reminiscent of Buddha’s Noble Eightfold Path; inclusion of Brahmaviharas (Yoga Sutra 1:33) also shows Buddhism’s influence on parts of the Sutras. The samadhi techniques are identical to the jhanas found in the Pali Canon. In Vyasa’s commentary to the Yogasutras, (Yogabhashya) and Vacaspati Misra’s subcommentary it is openly admitted that the samadhi techniques are directly borrowed from the Buddhists (Jhana) with just the inclusion of the mystical and divine interpretations of mental absorption. The Sutras not only provide yoga with a thorough and consistent philosophical basis, they also clarify many important esoteric concepts which are common to all traditions of Indian thought, such as karma.
Usage of the Patanjali Yoga Sutras
Although Patanjali’s work does not cover the many types of Yogic practices that have become prevalent, its succinct form and availability caused it to be pressed into service by a variety of schools of Yogic thought. The Sutras, with commentaries, have been published by a number of successful teachers of Yoga, as well as by academicians seeking to clarify issues of textual variation. There are also other versions from a variety of sources available on the Internet. The many versions display a wide variation, particularly in translation. The text has not been submitted in its entirety to any rigorous textual analysis, and the contextual meaning of many of the Sanskrit words and phrases remains a matter of some dispute.
Text of the Yoga Sutras
Patanjali divided his Yoga Sutras into 4 chapters or books (Sanskrit pada), containing in all 196 aphorisms, divided as follows:
- Samadhi Pada (51 sutras)
- Samadhi refers to a blissful state where the yogi is absorbed into the One, or God, or the Divine Self. The author describes yoga and then the nature and the means to attaining samādhi. This chapter contains the famous verse that defines yoga: “Yogaś citta-vritti-nirodhaḥ” (“Yoga is the restraint of mental modifications”).
- Sadhana Pada (55 sutras)
- Sadhana is the Sanskrit word for “practice” or “discipline”. Here the author outlines two forms of Yoga: Kriya Yoga (Action Yoga) and Ashtanga Yoga (Eightfold or Eightlimbed Yoga).
- Kriya yoga, sometimes called Karma Yoga, is also expounded in Chapter 3 of the Bhagavad Gita, where Arjuna is encouraged by Krishna to act without attachment to the results or fruit of action and activity. It is the yoga of selfless action and service.
- Ashtanga Yoga describes the eight limbs that together constitute Raja Yoga (see below).
- Vibhuti Pada (56 sutras)
- Vibhuti is the Sanskrit word for “power” or “manifestation”. ‘Supra-normal powers’ (Sanskrit: siddhi) are acquired by the practice of yoga. The temptation of these powers should be avoided and the attention should be fixed only on liberation. These siddhi include items such as clairvoyance, levitation, Bilocation, to become as small as an atom, to materialize objects, to have access to memories from past lives, etc.
- Kaivalya Pada (34 sutras)
- Kaivalya literally means “isolation”. In the yoga sutras Kaivalya stands for emancipation, liberation and is used interchangeably with moksha (liberation), which is the goal of Yoga. The Kaivalya Pada describes the nature of liberation and the reality of the transcendental self.
The eight limbs (ashtanga) of Raja Yoga
The eight “limbs” or steps prescribed in the second pada of the Yoga Sutras are: Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi. Ashtanga yoga consists of the following steps: The first five are called external aids to Yoga (bahiranga sadhana)
- Yama refers to the five abstentions: things one should avoid. These are the same as the five vows of Jainism.
- Ahimsa: non-violence, inflicting no injury or harm to others or even to one’s own self, it goes as far as nonviolence in thought, word and deed.
- Satya: truth in word & thought.
- Asteya: non-covetousness, no stealing: to the extent that one should not even desire something that is not his own.
- Brahmacharya: abstain from sexual intercourse; celibacy in case of unmarried people and monogamy in case of married people. Even this to the extent that one should not possess any sexual thoughts towards any other man or woman except one’s own spouse. It’s common to associate Brahmacharya with celibacy.
- Aparigraha: non-possessiveness: limit possessions to what is necessary or important, which changes with the period in one’s life. A parent needs more possessions than a grandparent. Sadhus are not supposed to have anything.
- Niyama refers to the five observances, things one should do.
- Shaucha: cleanliness of body & mind.
- Santosha: satisfaction; Be satisfied with what one has.
- Tapas: austerity and associated observances for body discipline & thereby mental control. Tapasya implies a self-discipline or austerity willingly expended both in restraining physical urges and in actively pursuing a higher purpose in life. Through tapas, a yogi or spiritual seeker can “burn off” or prevent accumulation of negative energies, clearing a path toward spiritual evolution.
- Svadhyaya: study of the Vedic scriptures to know about God and the soul, which leads to introspection on a greater awakening to the soul and God within,
- Ishvarapranidhana: surrender to, worship of, and love for, the divinity within oneself.
- Asana: Discipline of the body: rules and postures to keep it disease-free and for preserving vital energy. Correct postures are a physical aid to meditation, for they control the limbs and nervous system and prevent them from producing disturbances. These are what’s best known as ‘yoga’ in the west.
- Pranayama: control of breath. Beneficial to health, steadies the body and is highly conducive to the concentration of the mind.
- Pratyahara: withdrawal of senses from their external objects: a form of meditation practice.
The last three levels are called internal aids to Yoga (antaranga sadhana)
- Dharana: concentration of the consciousness upon a physical object, such as a flame of a lamp, the mid point of the eyebrows, or the image of a deity. Maehle (2006: p.234) defines Dharana as: “The mind thinks about one object and avoids other thoughts; awareness of the object is still interrupted.”
- Dhyana: steadfast meditation. Undisturbed flow of thought around the object of meditation (pratyayaikatanata). The act of meditation and the object of meditation remain distinct and separate.
- Samadhi: oneness with the object of meditation. There is no distinction between act of meditation and the object of meditation. Samadhi is of two kinds:
- Samprajnata Samadhi conscious samadhi. The mind remains concentrated (ekagra) on the object of meditation, therefore the consciousness of the object of meditation persists. Mental modifications arise only in respect of this object of meditation. This state is of four kinds:
- Savitarka: the Citta (or consciousness) is concentrated upon a gross object of meditation such as a flame of a lamp, the tip of the nose, or the image of a deity.
- Savichara: the Citta is concentrated upon a subtle object of meditation , such as the tanmatras (The five tanmatras are sound, touch, form, taste, and odor or smell)
- Sananda: the Citta is concentrated upon a still subtler object of meditation, like the senses themselves: smelling instead of smells themselves.
- Sasmita: the Citta is concentrated upon the ego-substance with which the self is generally identified.
- Asamprajnata Samadhi supraconscious. The citta and the object of meditation are fused together. The consciousness of the object of meditation is transcended. All mental modifications are checked (niruddha), although latent impressions may continue.
- Samprajnata Samadhi conscious samadhi. The mind remains concentrated (ekagra) on the object of meditation, therefore the consciousness of the object of meditation persists. Mental modifications arise only in respect of this object of meditation. This state is of four kinds:
Combined simultaneous practice of Dhāraṇā, Dhyāna & Samādhi is referred to as Samyama and is considered a tool of achieving various perfections, or Siddhis.
Based on wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali (Oct. 2010)